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Stimulus generalization means to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS. So, learned response occurs not only to the original CS, but also to other stimuli, which are similar to original CS.
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Stimulus discrimination occurs when learned response is given to a specific stimulus, which is the original CS but not to other similar stimuli. Hence, CR is not observed in response to other stimuli, which are similar to the original CS.
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As a result of experimental successive trials, he concluded that learning is incremental.
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Reinforcer any stimulus which increases the probability of the preceding response. Punisher any stimulus which decreases the probability of the preceding response.
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Operant conditioning is a type of learning associating behaviors with their results and consequences.
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In the ‘positive punishment’ procedure, after the behavior occurs, an unpleasant stimulus is presented. As a result, the future probability of that behavior decreases.
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In continuous reinforcement schedule, every response is reinforced every time it occurs. In partial reinforcement schedule, every response is not reinforced; only some of them are reinforced.
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In VI, the reinforcer is presented after a varying, unpredictable period of time.
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Insight learning
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Latent learning refers to a type of cognitive learning in which learning occurs without any obvious reinforcer. In this type of learning, there is also no demonstration of the learned behavior until a reinforcer is given. So, learning becomes apparent when a reinforcer or an incentive is present.
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A cognitive map is a mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings.
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According to Social Learning Theory, learning occurs by observing and imitating others in the environment.
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This result indicates that learning a behavior and performing it are two different things. This is actually an example of the learning–performance distinction. Apparently, all children learned how to act aggressively through observation, but some of them did not prefer acting like this. Learning might occur but the behavior may not be performed. So the behavior may not be observable at any time.
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The lifespan perspective emphasizes that human development is a lifelong process and it is affected by multidimensional factors, such as biological, intraindividual, social, and cultural factors.
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Human development results from biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes, and the interaction among these three processes.
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A developmental period is a time zone with a certain beginning and end based on a certain age-group. Each period includes certain characteristics.
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Early childhood is the period that has been described usually as preschool time. During this period, children typically follow a certain developmental path in terms of different aspects of development. They usually tend to become self-sufficient, since they learn and start to use social cues and rules in this period.
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Early adulthood is the period from 20s to late 30s.
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Late adulthood is the longest period which begins in 60s and goes until death. Since this period can be the longest, there are lots of variations among individuals. For example, chronic stress can affect health at this stage.
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This debate is concerned with whether human development is affected by nature (genetic makeup) or nurture (environment), and with the extent to which aspects of development are affected by nature and by nurture. According to nature part of the debate, humans’ genetic background determines a kind of biological program for each human being. In contrast with the nature part, nurture part of the debate emphasizes the importance of environmental experiences and influences on human development. From this perspective, human beings are born with tabula rasa (a blank state) and gain developmental aspects through exposure to environment across years.
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Freud’s theory has been criticized since it pays great attention to sexual instintcs and since it does not mention the potential effects of culture.
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Symbolic thinking of a child increases with word usage and increased mental images, and child move forward from sensoryphysical combinations to operations during this stage.
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The zone of proximal development is the distance between what a person can perform individually and what that person can perform under guidence.
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Cephalocaudal pattern is the pattern of development that begins at the top of the body, which is the head in our case, and gradually follows a path from top to down, which can be shoulders, arms, etc. The proximodistal pattern is the physical developmental path from the center of the body to the extremities. For example, an infant is able to gain mastery on muscles in the torso before controlling the muscles in the hands and fingers.
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Gross motor skills are involved in large muscle activities and movements. In contrast to gross motor skills, fine motor skills are involved in small muscle movements and activities, that occur in the hands and fingers.
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