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Need for achievement is the motive for reaching a high standard as well as complex tasks and challenging others.
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Need for power indicates the desire for gaining authority over others as well as controlling and leading them.
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Need for affiliation is the desire for establishing friendships and being a part of a group.
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Process perspectives focus on peoples’ behaviors which may be affected by environmental factors besides needs. The important point for managers is how to cause employees to repeat or not repeat those behaviors. Some known process perspectives of motivation are equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal setting. In this chapter we will cover equity theory and expectancy theory.
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Equity theory proposes that individuals seek equal and fair treatment regarding equal contributions. Thus the theory emphasizes justice, fairness, and equality. According to the equity perspective, employees will be motivated when they observe that they get the same amount of treatment compared to others. That is, employees evaluate the ratio of inputs such as time, effort, and ability to outcomes such as pay, promotion, and recognition compared to the similar ratios by others.
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This theory is based on three key factors: expectation, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy or effort-performance linkage is the perceived probability of success by an individual about performing a task. Instrumentality or performance-reward (outcome) linkage is the perceived degree of positive outcome. Valence is the attractiveness of the outcome for the individual. The theory suggests that the individual’s motivation depends on the expectation of her or his ability to perform certain level and receive a reward linked to it.
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Leadership is the process of influencing others – a group, employees, or followers depending on the environment- in dynamic ways towards attaining goals.
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Management and leadership are similar in terms of: • Focus on attaining goals, • Group function, • Process of interaction and influence, • Practice changing with circumstances.
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Early research on leader traits introduced characterisctics possessed by powerful leaders, which is called Great Man theory. Traits approach focused on identifying innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders in history. The logic is to analyze what such leaders did to achieve highly challenging, at times impossible tasks. Atatürk, Lincoln, Napoleon, and Gandhi are examples of such traits.
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Based on interviews with managers and employees, this group of studies identified two basic forms of leadership behaviors: task/production oriented behaviors and people/ employee oriented behaviors.7 Task-oriented behaviors indicate a focus on production and technical aspects of a job. Managers who were task-oriented were concerned about issues such as keeping low costs and scheduling meetings. People-oriented behaviors indicate a supportive approach to subordinates.
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The results of this group of research were akin to Michigan studies. The researchers from Ohio State University introduced two basic leader behaviors or styles: initiating structure behavior and consideration behavior. Initiating structure is parallel to the task oriented behavior and shows the emphasis on formal processes such as designing roles and responsibilities. Consideration behavior is a form of people orientation and indicates the extent of concern for the relationships with subordinates and their feelings.
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Introduced by Hersey and Blanchard, The premise of the situational leadership model is “Different situations demand different kinds of leadership”. The situational model carries features of behaviorial approaches to leadership.
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This model examines the match between the leadership style and the situation. The difference from the situational model is that Fiedler’s model adds organizational aspects to the situational variables. The focus of the Fiedler’s contingency model is to detect the leadership style and the situation correctly, so the most effective match can be decided. If this match is the right one then the group is most likely to be successful; if the match is not appropriate the group performance will be relatively low. Let’s examine how the leadership style and the situation is detected.
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The introduction of transformational leadership was initiated by Downton and developed by Burns. Transformational leaders differ from others by their charisma and the ability to inspire radical change. Transformational leadership is more than charismatic leadership which is “inspiring and motivating people beyond what they would normally do”.
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Some are: • The overall legal workplace requirements in a country such as quotas for women and underrepresented groups and people with disabilities. • The approach of business owners and top administration about diversification of the workforce. • The size and extent of cross-cultural operations and global connections. • The percentage of customer diversification in the market for specific goods or services. • The pressure from the public opinion and civil society organizations. • The gender, racial, and cultural composition of the labor pool whether regional or international that companies and organizations draw workers.
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A diversified work place is a blend of multi-characteristics possessed by the members of a business organization. Hence, a diversified work place is: multi-generational; composed of a variety of backgrounds, cultures, languages, and ideologies as well as religions; covers different ethnic groups; minorities, underrepresented and disadvantaged groups; and finally diversified gender groups.
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Companies with international operations feel the pressure of becoming more diversified under the developments and changes such as: • The increasing mobility of the work force among the countries and regions of the world. • The diversified nature of customers of economic sectors whether industrial or service providers. • The increasing global competition pushing companies towards international strategies for gaining different cultural perspectives and a variety of skills.
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The process starts with the needs that change by individuals and circumstances. Because all individuals have needs of this or that kind, motivation is a basic tool for all managers to create a happy and efficient work place. The motivation process continues with actions towards the fullfillment of the needs by the person, others, and most importantly by managers. The result of these actions are satisfactions and rewards either intrinsicly from within the person or extrinsicly from outside.
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Content perspectives focus on people's needs that result in certain behaviors and actions for fulfilling them. Content theories therefore discuss various needs that motivate people for contributing to organizational goals.
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ERG theory represents a simplified form of Maslow’s needs hierarchy with reduced number of needs.
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The theory content is based on interviews he conducted to find out when employees were satisfied and when dissatisfied, thus when they were motivated and unmotivated to work.
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This theory is based on three key factors: expectation, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy or effortperformance linkage is the perceived probability of success by an individual about performing a task. Instrumentality or performance-reward (outcome) linkage is the perceived degree of positive outcome. Valence is the attractiveness of the outcome for the individual.
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Equity theory proposes that individuals seek equal and fair treatment regarding equal contributions. Thus the theory emphasizes justice, fairness, and equality.
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Process perspectives focus on peoples’ behaviors which may be affected by environmental factors besides needs.
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This perspective is also called three-needs theory and developed by David McClelland and it proposes that certain needs acquired throughout one’s lifetime determine the motivation at work. The most common needs are: need for achievement(nAch); need for power(nPow); and need for affiliation(nAff).
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