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Enactive (Personal) Mastery Vicarious Modeling Social Persuasion Arousal (Physiological Feedback):
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Effort (E) to Performance (P) (expectancy) Performance (P) to Outcome (O) Outcome Valances
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Cognitive Evaluation theory is the baseline of Self-Determination theory. It is developed to highlight extrinsic-intrinsic rewards balance determining employee motivation. Self-determination theory than extended it to elaborate the types of needs in identfying extrinsic-intrinsic reward balance.
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Motivation is “the inner force that directs individuals in reaching a target with purposive actions” (Tevrüz et al., 1999, p. 57). When a person becomes thirsty, he or she looks for water (or other substitutes), or he works hard when wants to be successful are counted as examples of motivated behaviors. Based on these two definitions, motivated behavior is said to be a three-level process; • Inner force which directs person towards the goal (intensity) • Purposive actions to attain the goal (direction) • Reaching the goal persistently (persistence) (Robbins and Judge, 2012).
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Telecommuting is an arrangement aiming to decrease office spaces. Employees do their job outside the organization whether at home or other possible places at least 2 working days. It diminishes the requirements which the formal organizations impose for their employees such as start-end time, dress codes, break and lunch time etc. The employee must connect the organization with a computer to follow the job processes and provide information.
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Job sharing is a method enabling employees to split a full-day work (40 hours a week). They can share the day (morning to noon and 1pm to 5 pm) or week (Monday-Wednesday and ThursdaySaturday). Individuals can arrange their time schedules based on their availability.
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The relationship between equity theory and organizational justice provides a significant baseline in understanding employees’ behavior at work. According to research, fair distribution of resources (distributive justice), designing the procedures in a fair way (procedural justice) and act respectfully (interactional justice) bring positive work outcomes. In fair context, employees are motivated to be more satisfied with their jobs, more committed to the company, engage organizational citizenship behavior, behave more customer friendly and intent to leave less as well as opposite results might be received in unfair situations (Aquino et al., 1997; Demir, 2011).
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Secondary motives are the core of motivation theories. They are learned needs which should be elaborated clearly. When an employee’s level of motivation is concerned, managers work with secondary motives more than primary ones
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X and Y Theory is important in respect to managers’ different behaviors. Each manager can choose to act in a different way whether focusing on results or process. X Theory focuses on more contingent situations, Y theory on the other hand emphasizes individual needs on motivation.
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First, let us define what organizational climate is: “the shared perceptions of and the meaning attached to the policies, practices, and procedures employees experience and the behaviors they observe getting rewarded and that are supported and expected.” (Schneider et al., 2013).
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Initially, Hofstede categorized the differences into four dimensions. Later work has increased the dimensions to six (Hofstede and Bond, 1988; Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov, 2010) (the later additions are marked by *): Uncertainty avoidance (UA) Individualism-Collectivism (INDCOL) Power distance (PDI) Masculinity-femininity Long-term orientation* Indulgence*
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Organizational culture is about the values and beliefs that the people in an organization have, how these are ‘taught’ to new members, and the stories that are told from generation to generation to pass the culture along
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According to Schein, organizational culture manifests at three different levels, going from the most visible, surface-level phenomena to the least tangible and unconscious understandings: 1) Artifacts 2) Espouses values 3) Basic underlying assumptions
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Organizational culture is “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.”
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Organizational climate is how employees collectively perceive the formal and informal ways and rules in an organization and what they see being rewarded and punished.
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Second, (organizational) culture is born out of trying to solve (organizational) problems. Adapting to the external environment and internal coordination are the primary problems of organizations and culture is the outcome of a shared history of finding solutions to these problems (Schein, 1992)
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Geertz argued that it was the anthropologist’s responsibility to undertake an interpretive approach to the study of culture in order to make sense of these “webs of significance.” (Geertz, 1973) In order to do so, Geertz advocated for ethnographic studies of culture that provide multi-dimensional descriptions; not only general and reductive information but also idiosyncratic details. Such ethnographies may start out from the most visible elements of culture but dig down into the underlying cultural relations and mechanisms so that we may get a rich understanding of the particulars of the culture in question.
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Subculture refers to the culture shared by members of a group defined by their location, department, task responsibilities or another defining characteristic. Subcultures may vary slightly or significantly from the overall organizational culture. For example, if the group is substantially isolated from the rest of the organization, they may develop a culture that is wholly independent of the organizational culture.
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Organizational climate is related to more observable characteristics of the organization, such as practices, policies, and procedures.
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There are three main reasons why founders have a central role in how organizational culture is created (Schein, 1992): 1. An organization usually starts out small and the founder chooses people with similar values, beliefs, and vision to work with. 2. Even if founders hire people who do not share their values and beliefs (for example because they need someone with a specific expertise that is not widely found), they can eventually ‘socialize’ these employees to their system of values and ideas. 3. The way the founder behaves will influence the people they work with because founders can act as role models to their employees
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Service Climate is how employees collectively perceive the formal and informal ways and rules in terms of serving customers in an organization and what they see being rewarded and punished in terms of service behaviors.
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Ethical Climate is about how employees collectively perceive the formal and informal ways and rules in terms of ethics in an organization and what they see being rewarded and punished in terms of ethical behaviors.
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Generally speaking, we can group artifacts into several categories: 1. Symbols 2. Language 3. Rituals and stories
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The espoused values of an organization are those beliefs and values that members of an organization share because these beliefs and values have proven useful in the past. It is important to remember that organizational members should see that the benefits of a specific value repeatedly before it becomes part of the organizational culture.
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The discussion about ‘organization is’ versus ‘organization has’ is about whether culture can be studied objectively or if one must immerse herself in the culture she is studying. The first view is called the etic approach, while the second view is called the emic approach. When scientists espouse the ‘organization is’ approach, they immerse themselves in the culture of the organization and practice an emic methodology. When they espouse the ‘organization has’ approach, they stand back from the organization and try to observe and quantify the culture as neutrally as possible.
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